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 Throughout
history the steppes have always been a stage for continuous struggle
between various nomadic groups. As time passed certain groups were
able to rise and gain mastery over the others. However, few have
ever been able to create a lasting empire. In the late 12th century,
various Turkish and Mongol-Tungusic tribes roamed the steppes of
Mongolia. The Naimans and Kereyids tribes controlled western Mongolia,
the Oirats controlled the north areas, the Merkids controlled the
south of Lake Baikal, and the Tartars the east of the River Kerulen.
The Mongols were located between the Tartars and the Merkids. These
groups are referred to as Tribes. Within these tribes are divisions
called clans. Note that the clans within a tribe are not always
united, as with the case of the Mongols during the rise of Genghis
Khan.
It must also be noted that the common phrase saying that Genghis
Khan "united the Mongol tribes" is a misleading statement. This
error comes from the lack of distinguishment between Mongols and
non-Mongols and between "tribes" and "clans". He united both the
Mongol Clans (that used to be a united tribe) and other "non-Mongol"
tribes such as the Naimans, (whose clans were united, unlike the
Mongols).
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After the collapse of the Tang Dynasty in 907 AD, the Chinese ruling
class retreated south and control of Northern China fell into the
hands of non-Chinese people. In 916, the Khitai, a semi-nomadic
tribe from southern Mongolia, conquered Northern China and established
the Liao Dynasty of northern China. In the early 12th century, the
Khitai were overthrown by the Jurchids, who replaced the Liao Dynasty
with the Jin Dynasty. Some time in the mid 12th century the Tanghuts,
a Tibetan people, established the Xi Xia Empire in western China.
Meanwhile the Chinese rulers established the Song Dynasty south
of the Yellow River (Huang He) in 906. Thus, during the rise of
the Genghis Khan, China was divided into three states.
After the Khitai were overthrown from Northern China, part of their
nobility fled westward to the south of Lake Balkhash. There they
established the Kara Khitai Empire. West of the Kara Khitai was
the Khwarazmian Empire of Persia, which formed in the late 12th
century.
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Although we usually speak of Genghis Khan's "unifications," there
existed a "Mongol" kingdom long before Genghis' unification. It
was this kingdom's downfall that created the turmoil of the Mongol
Clans during Genghis' time. Genghis Khan (Temujin) was actually
a descendent of a Khan of this former "Mongol" Kingdom.
According to legend, a blue wolf and his mate, a fallow deer, settled
at the head of the Onon River, and there, Batacaciqian, the ancestor
of the Mongols, was born. Many generations passed and different
clans emerged from the line of Batacaciqian. In the Borjigin clan
there was a man named Khaidu. One day a rival clan attacked and
killed his family and destroyed their hard worked prosperity. In
revenge, Khaidu gathered a large group and defeated his rival. Khaidu
earned a large following, and according to the Secret History, became
the first to rule all the Mongol clans.
The grandson of Khaidu was Kabul Khan. Under Kabul the united Mongol
clans became a powerful tribe. Around this time, the Liao Dynasty
of Northern China had just been overthrown and was replaced by the
Jin Dynasty. Peace between the two neighbors could not endure. Once
source states that trouble grew when the drunken Kabul Khan tweaked
the Emperor's beard at a banquet. Another says it was because Kabul
refused to attend a wedding ceremony. Which was actually the case
is not certain, but the hostility grew. In 1139 the Jin sent and
army to capture Kabul Khan but was defeated near Huiningfu. In 1143,
Kabul Khan counter-attacked and captured 20 Jin fortified locations.
In 1146, he dealt the Jin another major defeat; and this time, the
Jin Emperor was compelled to go for peace and pay tributes. After
Kabul's death, his distant cousin Ambaghai, was elected Khan.
According to the Persian historian Rashid ad-Din, the Mongols murdered
a Tartar shaman who failed to cure the illness of Kabul-Khan's brother.
This bitterly angered the Tartars who ambushed and captured Ambaghai
Khan. Ambaghai was sent to the Jin and was nailed to a wooden donkey.
The Kutula Khan took the throne and (son of Kabul) immediate campaigned
for vengeance. He crushed the Jin forces, but could not gain much
success against the Tartars. Details of the Tartar-Mongol are lost,
but it seems that around 1160 the Mongol army was destroyed at Lake
Buir. The Mongol leadership was shattered, the lands were devastated,
and the kingdom was destroyed.
The Mongols discontinued to act as a single tribe and Mongol clans
fought each other for what little there was. With such a great decline
in morality, and people living in great misery, it hardly seemed
possible for any greatness of the Mongols in the future.
Next: The Rise of Genghis Khan
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